2)      VITAL ISSUES WHEN PLANNING TRAINING:

When planning training there are some basic questions that need to be asked, such as what the participants' background is, and what they expect from the training as well as what skills and knowledge you want to pass on to them. This section of the manual will therefore look at some fundamental subjects in the planning and preparation of training.

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2.1       Get to know your audience

Even if the need for training seems self-evident to the organisers, this might not be the case for the intended audience. Or, the participants might not see the need for some aspects of the training that you are planning even if they agree with the training in general.

It is important to start the process of training with the needs of the trainees clearly in focus – the identification of existing training needs might not be obvious, either in the minds of the trainees and sometimes even the trainers. The group responsible for the training need to agree at the outset the questions of “what” and “why”

. what is being covered?

. why is the training considered necessary?

It is also helpful to inform the trainees of the trainers' conclusion as to “what” and “why”, preferably in advance of the training and certainly at the outset of the course.

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2.2       Some barriers to effective training

When training participants who are part of civil society groups and who are attending the training on a voluntary basis, you do not generally face some of problems of training public officials for whom the training is compulsory and who might perceive the training as some kind of threat to their professionalism. However it is important for the trainer to remember, that even if the participants are happy to listen to you, people are often unwilling to devote that extra time and energy to do things they way the trainer has suggested after the training. In a way, there is no point in telling people things that they are clearly not going to do.

It might therefore be a good idea to dedicate part of the training to identify the obstacles of putting the training into practice, and formulate suggestions how these can be dealt with. 

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2.3       Identifying training needs

The basic question of “what” a training session should include builds upon this discussion: the training should meet the needs of the trainees.

Needs can be distinguished from wants – needs should address the essential training requirements of both the individual trainee and the organisation, depending on background and mandate.

The importance of clarifying what a particular session or programme should involve is therefore the essential starting point. This might seem obvious but the importance of clearly establishing precisely what the training is designed to do cannot be stressed enough.

This leads us to identify four separate headings of possible training needs:

Knowledge – e.g. of the EU Discrimination Directives, national law, existence of national institutions or discriminatory situations that re prevalent in the country.

Skills – e.g. in developing an awareness of instances of discrimination many of which may not be obvious, and researching legal framework to apply relevant rules

Attitudes – e.g. to reinforce appropriate attitudes which stress the professional responsibility to fight discrimination

Values – e.g. to commit oneself to values such as equality across the board

The aim of a training session is likely to involve one or more of these categories. For example, we might say that the aim of a programme of training for NGOs will be “to raise the awareness of tools and skills needed to fight discrimination on the regional level”. But it is helpful to be able to spell out more fully the intended learning outcomes – the training objectives. This will help for the trainers and the trainees to focus on the essential content of the training, and will also assist in identifying further training needs if the intentions are not initially met.

When drafting intended learning outcomes, as precise as possible language should be used. Intended outcomes should be SMART

Specific

Manageable

Attainable

Relevant

Time specific

But is it really necessary to spend time writing down intended learning outcomes? Yes, it is very helpful for a number of reasons:

1)   It helps reinforce the point that the training should be pragmatic, i.e. applicable to the trainees' needs. It should be attainable within the time available. It should also be able to be assessed to enable both the trainers and the trainees to appreciate what has been achieved.

2)   It ensures that both trainers and trainees know the specific objectives of the training, as long as they are clearly specified and communicated.

3)   It also helps trainers with the next step of planing training – the choice of training techniques (see below).

Writing intended learning outcomes is therefore the first stage in planning the training. Here are two examples of what it could look like:

Example 1 - “training the trainers” - two day seminar for anti-discrimination experts

     The aims of this seminar are to explore methods of training members of civil society on anti-discrimination legislation and other methods of working against discrimination such as lobbying, campaigning and mediation.

     The intended learning outcomes of the seminar are for the participants to be able at the end of the training to

- write appropriate training techniques (knowledge)

- identify learners' needs in terms of knowledge, skills, attitude and values (analysis of needs)

- outline the advantages and disadvantages of lecture-style presentations and small group work (comprehension)

- draw up guidelines of good practice in establishing a suitable learning environment (application)

- develop an outline lesson plan on the EU discrimination Directives (application)

Example 2 – two hour lesson on the EU Discrimination Directives for NGOs

     The aim of this session is to provide the participants with a familiarity with and understanding of the Directives and how EU law requires them to be implemented into national legislation.

     The intended learning outcomes of the session are for the participants to be able at the end of the training to

- restate the main principles of the Directives (knowledge)

- critically assess the impact the Directives will have/are having on the specific area the participants are involved in (analysis, synthesis)

- evaluate the extent to which the Directives provide protection for a particular group (evaluation)

So what are the best ways to identify training needs and to communicate these to the trainees? Here are some options:

. Discuss the draft learning outcomes and programme with all members of the training team and other outside experts.

. Circulate the draft intended learning outcomes and programme to some trainees with short explanations and ask for any comments and suggestions.

. Distribute the definitive programme, including the intended learning outcomes about five days before the course to trainees. Try to get trainees to think about the training the will be attending by asking them short but specific questions about their expectations etc.

. At the start of the course, highlight the intended learning outcomes and explain why these have been considered relevant.

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2.4       Some key training design questions

During which hours of the day should the training be scheduled?

Different countries have different working cultures, and this needs to be considered when drafting the programme. For some countries it might be appropriate to conduct the training between 09h00 and 17h00 with a lunch break, whilst in other countries the participants might be more used to working straight from 09h00 to 15h00 and then end the session and break for lunch.

Will the trainees be expected to cover the intended learning hours solely in the training time provided in the programme?

It is common for trainers and trainees to see training as something done during training time (programme time) only. However, there can be advantages in expecting trainees, if possible, to carry out some preparatory work in advance, e.g. previewing circulated material.

How much does the audience already know?

Building upon the existing knowledge and skills is clearly desirable – and knowing your audience is therefore crucial (see further discussion above). In addition however, drawing upon the wide and varied experience of trainees during training is obviously beneficial – it encourages participation and stresses the practical relevance of the materials being presented.

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3)  TRAINING METHODS – CHOOSING THE MOST APPROPRIATE TECHNIQUES:  

3.1       Why training design is important

Drafting clear aims and intended learning outcomes (see above) will be of considerable assistance to trainers in making their choice of training methods or formats. It is clear that some methods are more efficient than others in achieving particular objectives. For example, if the intended learning outcome is to identify existing prejudices and try to change them, this is unlikely to be achieved successfully by only using lectures, but may instead be advanced by small group discussions. However, the communication of factual knowledge on e.g. the specific content of a particular EU Directive may only require a formal presentation, which of course is more resource efficient. Such a lecture could in turn be made into a more effective learning tool by means of using an over head projector, a video, or give the participants an opportunity to join in a discussion etc.

The choice of training methods should be determined by the intended training outcomes, and the design of the actual teaching method by awareness of the variety of formats and other available resources. However, there will always be certain constraints on resources, such as trainer availability, accommodation, specific budget allocations, time available for training etc. It is important to remember these three points when deciding on training methods:

. courses should be tailored to specific audiences – always start from the perspective of the actual participants

. participation – rather than passive reception – enhances they value of training for learners as well as the satisfaction gained by trainers

. learners will be more involved in the training if they can see the relevance of the training and the opportunity to apply the training in practice

It is also important to remember that the acquisition of knowledge is different from the acquisition of skills. It is generally accepted that people learn skills

            65 % by doing

            25 % by seeing

            10 % by hearing

whilst on the other hand knowledge is generally acquired

            75 % by seeing

            15 % by hearing

            10 % by doing (i.e. by experience).

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3.2       Learning environments

When conducting training, it is very important to establish a good learning environment. Whatever teaching methodologies are being used, you need to ensure that the trainees feel comfortable and receptive. The following are a few issues you need to keep in mind:

3.2.1   Location

If possible, the training should be carried out away from the working place of the trainees – this will minimise the chance of work related interruptions. The trainees will find it easier to concentrate on the training that is taking place there and then.

3.2.2   Other accommodation issues

Bear in mind that physical comfort is important. You need to consider issues such as room temperature, ventilation, seating capacity and seating arrangements. For example, can everyone see the speaker and can the speaker see every member of the audience? Can everyone hear? If interpretation equipment is used, is it working properly? Are the enough rooms for “breakout” activities?

3.2.3   Issues of timing

There are a number of things you need to keep in mind when dealing with issues of timing. See above the discussion on which hours of the day the training should be scheduled for. But there are also other points that need to be considered.

Periodic breaks are necessary for revitalising the audience, but be aware that the time taken to serve coffee etc is often significantly longer than trainers estimate – it is often necessary to allocate half an hour. Remember that most people's attention span is only around 20 minutes, so try to ensure that one-hour sessions are broken up with some change of activity every 20 minutes or so (see further discussion below).

3.2.4   Making trainees feel comfortable and at ease

Some people might perceive training as a threat, and the manner in which the training is carried out needs to be prepared with some care. Many participants may be anxious about opening up in discussions as they feel they might say the “wrong” thing and be open to criticism. It is therefore important to create a comfortable working and training environment.

Perhaps it is appropriate to welcome each trainee individually when they arrive? Also, it is important that the trainers mix (language barriers permitting) with the participants during break time in a more informal setting. The use of name badges helps people identify their fellow participants.

Try to maintain a supportive climate – be sensitive to possible signs of anxiety and be ready to provide encouragement and reassurances when necessary. And remember, non-verbal as well as verbal communication will provide useful feedback to the trainers.

Keep the sessions short and provide break times. However, you also need to make sure there is enough time for discussion and time to respond to questions to help ensure that training is proceeding at the pace needed by the trainees, and not that desired by the trainers.

3.2.5   Support for the trainers

It is of course also important that the trainers have a comfortable working environment. The organisers of the training need to make sure there are things like water for the speakers etc. A representative of the organisers must be on hand in the training room during the whole of the training in case the trainer would need help with some organisational aspects, e.g. technical hitches, photocopying or last minute (small) re-arrangements of the programme.

3.2.6   Establishing ground rules

It is important that both trainees and trainers understand their rights and responsibilities with regard to the training. It is always better to make these rules clear at the beginning of the training to prevent misunderstandings later. Consider discussing that attendance throughout the course is expected – any tendency to disappear early can be addressed by circulating financial claims forms only at the very end of the training. The timetable provided is not for mere guidance – try to start and finish at the allotted times. Make sure that all mobile phones are switched off during the training – you can explain to the trainees that they can make and receive phone calls during break times.

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3.3       Different training techniques

3.3.1   Presentations

Presentations are one of the most common training techniques. They can be used in a variety of situations and for a variety of tasks, e.g.;

. Lecture (from an expert in the relevant field)

. Lecture followed by open discussion, or lecture with the opportunity to intervene during the presentation (as above, but with the active involvement of the audience)

. Short presentations from panel members followed by panel discussion and with the opportunity to respond to questions from the audience (permitting a comparative or interdisciplinary approach to the topic in question)

. Short presentations from groups on allocated tasks (allowing identification of contrasting or novel approaches to the topic)

Possible drawbacks

The use of formal presentations does carry with it considerable risks, and this is true for lectures in particular. In many training situations, the use of traditional lectures is reduced and confined to circumstances where it is likely to have a real impact, for example where there is an opportunity to invite an experienced lecturer who is also an expert in the field at the very beginning or end of the course.

We need to be aware of some particular difficulties in making a presentation:

The immediacy of speech is striking – unlike a writer, a speaker cannot go back and redraft a sentence or passage.

This same applies to the listener – he cannot go back and re-read a section if he did not understand or was not paying attention.

When giving longer presentations, there are particular difficulties as most people's maximum attention span is only around 20 minutes.

Bearing this in mind, it is easy to understand the pressure on those giving formal speeches to make a good impression by saying what they mean the first time, in a manner that the audience can understand and to hold their attention throughout. When making a presentation, you need to attempt to convey the material in as engaging a manner as possible. This has implications both for what you say (for example, choosing illustrations of your points that are relevant to your audience and for the way you say it (reading out a prepared text from your papers without looking up will surely lead to the participants switching off).

The following are points which you should keep in mind with regard to the preparation and content of an oral presentation:

New trainers are surprised to discover how little they can actually say in their allotted time. You therefore need to think about selecting the most important information about a topic, how to explain it as simply as possible and to exclude anything that is irrelevant.

It goes without saying that thorough preparation of the topic is essential. Firstly, it will give you greater confidence if you know your topic well, and it will make it easier to handle any questions the participants might ask. Secondly, it will be obvious to your listeners if you do not really understand your topic, and they will cease to pay attention. In fact, having to explain something to other people is one of the best ways of ensuring that you understand it properly yourself.

You need to decide exactly what you are going to say. Here it is important to start by working out what the audience will expect from you (see section on intended learning outcomes). The composition of your audience is also important in determining how formal or informal your presentation should be.

Have a clear and logical structure, other wise your audience will get lost and lose interest. It is helpful to separate your introduction, the main body and the conclusion. In the introduction, you should tell the participants what you are going to be talking about, perhaps posing a question you intend to answer. In the main body, you should expand on your topic, breaking down the discussion into a number of sub-topics that follow logically from each other. What you say in the conclusion will depend on exactly what you are setting out to achieve. If you are simply describing something, then a summary of the main points should be enough. If you are trying to make a case for something, then you need to conclude by restating your main argument or answering the question you posed at the outset.

Once you have worked out your clear structure, you need to communicate this to your audience. This is particularly important in allowing anyone whose attention might have wondered to rejoin the presentation and still make sense of it. You might want to say, for example, “the first point I want to make is...”, “in this section I am going to talk about...”, or “in conclusion...”. Pauses between points and gestures such as holding up one finger for your first point, two for your second etc can help emphasise important links.

Timing is crucial as other people may be relying on you talking for a particular length of time and no more or less. Also, if you go on for longer than expected, your audience may begin to lose patience. The only way to really be sure that you have got the length right is to time yourself delivering it, speaking it out loud, not just reading it to yourself. When doing this, you need to bear in mind that if your presentation is being translated simultaneously you need to speak a little bit slower than normally, and if it is being translated consecutively, you obviously have to leave time for this.   

And here follow some points to keep in mind when you are delivering the presentation:

The way you deliver a presentation is as, if not more, important than what you say. You therefore first need to think about the mode of delivery you are going to use. What sort of prompts? What visual aids might be useful (see further below)? Will you sit or stand up? What kind of gestures are you going to use? Will you use a fixed or roving microphone?

Some form of prompt is most often necessary. Different options are available: you can read from a pre-prepared text (although you must take care that this is a text which has been specifically drafted for oral delivery) or speak from notes, perhaps written on cue cards. The major advantage of speaking from notes is that it sounds more natural than reading a text (even a specially prepared one) and it is easier to maintain eye contact with the audience as you do not constantly have to look down on your text.

Think about how you sound when delivering your presentation. If you speak too quickly, the audience will not be able to keep up with you, but if you are too slow, you are likely to bore them. See also the note above about interpretation. The appropriate volume at which you speak will vary depending on the size of the room you are speaking in and its acoustics – it is always worth asking the audience whether they can actually hear you. If you cannot make yourself heard without shouting, you should ask for a microphone, otherwise your voice will sound strained. In order to keep the participants attention, it is also important you do not speak in a monotonous voice (see note on pre-prepared text above) but keep your voice animated.

A “checklist” for a good oral presentation:

You can record your own views or ask a colleague to help you:

. Could the speaker be heard from the back of the room?

. Was eye contact continually used to involve all of the audience?

. Were audio-visual aids used appropriately?

. Was material written on blackboards or on overhead projectors visible from all parts of the room?

. Did the lecturer make appropriate use of any handouts?

. Was the lecturer fluent verbally?

. Did the lecturer vary intonation?

. Was the material well-organised?

. Did the lecturer appear well prepared?

. Was the audience clear as to the aims and intended learning outcomes of the presentation?

. Were key points adequately signaled?

. Was the pace of the lecture appropriate to the audience?

. Was the level of the lecture appropriate for the audience?

. Were the examples apt and interesting?

. Was the interest of the audience engaged throughout?

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3.3.2   Audio-visual aids

As already mentioned, visual aids can help your audience to understand the structure of your presentation and can also help in retaining their attention by introducing some variety. There are a number of different forms of audio-visual aids that can be used, e.g. overhead projectors, slide projectors, computer graphics, black/white boards, flipcharts, videos, objects or handouts. Each has its advantages and disadvantages – each has particular use depending on particular purpose. In general, however, you should only use audio-visual aids where they are appropriate, and you should keep them as simple as possible. Also, keep in mind the particular circumstances of the area where the training is taking place – if e.g. it is prone to daily power cuts you might be better off using very simple visual aids such as flipcharts and handouts, rather than something which needs a constant supply of electricity to function.

Why use audio-visual aids in presentations?

To put across a point with more effect.

To help trainees take more in – as mentioned above up to 75 % of knowledge or information is gained through sight.

To maintain interest.

To focus attention on one spot or in one place.

To break up a lecture, particularly every 20 minutes.

To help in the preparation of a talk – extensive preparation leads to a polished product.

To help keep both the speaker and the audience on track.

To aid memory by providing a summary.

To help standardise presentations involving a number of trainers at different locations.

To add variety.

How to use audio-visual aids in presentations

Use audio-visual aids economically and avoid overkill, otherwise you lose one of the main reasons in using them, i.e. to maintain the participants' interest.

Ensure that the content is relevant and that they emphasise the key issues in your presentation.

Do not put too much information into one kind of audio-visual aid at the time, otherwise you will overload the audience. If you are using slides for example, do not put down more than seven lines of five words on each slide.

Give the audience enough time to read the content of any slide, and think about preparing a handout for distribution with the content of the slide, as copying it down might be unproductive.

Make sure overhead projector slides can be seen from the back of the room. It is advisable to use at least size 24 typeface if you are typing, and the text needs to be in a dark colour.

            This typeface is 24 point.

If using overhead projector slides, reveal the text gradually, otherwise the audience will not concentrate on the point you are discussing. Stand beside the projector, and remember to never turn your back on the participants, especially when talking to the class.

Number your transparencies and tag them so that you can easily separate them. Also, ensure that you stack them in an orderly manner when removing them – you may need to show some of them again to make a point clearer or to answer a question.

Flipcharts are easy to use and very helpful at times of reporting back by groups (see below). Remember to write legibly (scribble is distracting to decipher and looks unprofessional) and in capitals with big, bold letters. A rough guide to the size of lettering is:

10 people, board 2 metres away – letters 2 cm high and 30 mm thick

25 people, board 10 metres away – letters 4 cm high and 30 mm thick

50 people, board 20 metres away – letters 8 cm high and 50 mm thick

If showing a video, it is useful in advance to explain why this is being used – in other words, clarify the questions in advance of the screening to enable the trainees to gain greater value from the video. What do you expect from the audience at the end of the screening? If necessary, be ready to freeze the video to discuss a particular issues if you feel it needs to be considered there and then.

Use audio-visual resources with consideration if any of the audience has sight or hearing problems.

Also – consider the time of day: will it send people to sleep?

Never use visual aids with re-hearsing them in advance.

Preparation when using audio-visual equipment

Preparation is key to using audio-visual aids successfully – a number of things can “go wrong”. Here are some simple steps you can take to ensure your presentation runs as smoothly as possible:

Check that the overhead projector is working properly. Is it properly located and can be seen from all parts of the room? Does the light level in the room require adjusting? Try out the transparency in advance – does the overhead projectors focus properly?

If using software presentation programmes, check the compatibility of your version of the programme with the version available at the location, and ensure you know how to link up the data projector and laptop computer.

Are the flipchart pens working? Are they thick enough? Is there enough paper? Can the chart be seen by all the participants?

Check any electronic equipment such as video players in advance to make sure they work.

If logistics mean that the speaker does not operate the visual aids him/herself, ensure that the operator is synchronised with the oral delivery.

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3.3.3   Interactive/participatory techniques

Not all speakers are comfortable with the idea of audience interruptions throughout their presentations by questions or interventions. Even if such participation can help maintain audience interest, timekeeping may become problematic and relevance may stray. (In such situations, remember to always respond to a questioner, even if only by explaining why you will answer the question later.) Permitting time for questions after the presentation is of course another option. However, this may fall foul of audience self-censorship – there may be a reluctance culturally to challenge guest speakers, and the immediacy of the thought that prompted the questions might be lost.

If you have invited an outside guest speaker, it is important to ensure that the opportunity for asking questions at the end of the lecture is not an empty and embarrassing period of silence. Get a group of trainees to prepare some questions in advance, by reading material prepared by the speaker.

There are, also, a number of training techniques available to the speaker to try to stimulate large group or plenary audience participation. Which technique is the most appropriate will of course depend on the topic covered and the background of the participants:

Brainstorming: Following a presentation, the audience is asked to respond with ideas which are written down on a flipchart. All ideas are recorded, there is no discussion at this stage or rejection of ideas, and the moderators task is simply to list and to stop attempts at premature discussion. After all the responses are recorded, there is subsequent discussion/analysis/categorising etc of the responses as appropriate.

“Snowballing” or “pyramiding”: Ask the audience to discuss a topic for a brief period of time, say 3-4 minutes, in pairs or in threes. Then ask the pairs/threes to discuss their conclusions for another brief period with another pair/three to identify whether there was any disagreement and if the means at arriving at the conclusion were similar etc. This exercise is then followed by a general discussion. The advantages of this technique is that it gets the discussion going in a relatively “secure” environment, as the trainees discuss in pairs and then move onto larger groups. It breaks down large and unmanageable groups and all trainees have the chance to speak. However, if using this technique remember that the trainees needs clear instructions as to what is expected of them.

Asking the audience to vote or record their agreement to a number of statements made by the speaker can help break up a formal presentation. A variation is to seek responses using three categories, “yes”, “no” and “maybe”. Here the audience could be asked for its views on a range of questions in response to knowledge, but also to their attitudes or values.

All these techniques can be used at pre-designated intervals during the presentation or at the end. It is particularly important to use them during presentations during slots when the audience is likely to doze off (e.g. after lunch or towards the end of the day).

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3.3.4   Working with groups

Group work is a key method in any modern training, and is most often used to compliment plenary sessions. Or perhaps it is better to suggest that formal presentations should compliment group work?

Group work is not “time off” for the trainer – the key to successful group work is thorough planning and effective facilitating.

So what are the reasons for using small groups in training?

. Group discussion is vital in the formulation of appropriate attitudes and values

. Group discussion is the best way of obtaining the ideas and experience of others in the group

. Participants find group discussion rewarding, and therefore the training as such is more rewarding

. Group discussion allows participants the opportunity of applying knowledge

. Groups create a supportive social environment

There are of course, as with any training method, disadvantages and problems with using small group work. Whilst good group discussion is satisfying, poor group discussion can lead to frustration and drop out. Careful preparation is as always important, and so is awareness of techniques that can help ensure all participants gain as much as they can from the group discussion.

There are essentially three types of group discussion:

directed-teaching discussion group – there is one correct answer to the discussion, and the aim is to arrive at the correct answer

the non-directed discussion group – tutors and trainees know there is no one correct answer, and the aim is to open up discussion and explore the topic through getting participants to interact in the group in a positive and constructive way

the seminar-type discussion – there is no hitherto accepted correct answer, and discussion will attempt to get some constructive conclusions which may lead to some collective decision from the competing alternatives available.

The role of the trainer is crucial in each of these types. Groups often wish to be told the correct answer, what is right and what is wrong. With the directed group, any tendency the trainer might have to provide the answer to the group immediately must be avoided. In the non-directed and in the seminar groups the trainer must ensure that the work is done by the group. However, he/she should intervene regularly firstly to ensure the group knows what is expected of them, secondly to move the discussion along and thirdly to summarise the discussion and the conclusions. It is also the trainers responsibility to ensure that at some stage of the small group work ALL the members are heard.

So what can go wrong in small group work? Here are some of the things to look out for:

. The group may not be clear as to the purpose of the discussion and what is expected of them

. The task may be uninteresting or insufficiently stimulating

. Discussion materials may be of a poor quality

. The group is given too many tasks in the allotted time

. People know how to talk to others but not with others – some talk too much/too little, dominate/are      dominated, get off the point, repeat themselves etc

. Groups are too large to ensure proper participation

. Choice of group members may make open discussion difficult

. Groups may get bogged down with too many references to examples drawn from personal experience

. The accommodation is poor – seating does not encourage discussion

Small group work will be successful and rewarding for both the trainer and the trainees if all the participants feel they had a chance to contribute. It is also very important that they feel they have had good leadership and that t lang="EN-GB" dir="LTR">Step 2 – Plan the group exercise

Review the task to anticipate both problems and answers, and schedule the timing of the exercise to allow for some flexibility. And very importantly – arrange seating and equipment to meet your needs, which might not necessarily be the same as the existing layout of the venue. (Obviously, you should always put the seating back as you found it after the session.) The seating arrangement will help determine the relationship between the trainer and the trainees.

Step 3 – Ensure that the group understands the tasks and the intended learning outcomes

Introduce the exercise by telling the participants why they are doing it. Also tell the group what the ground rules are, i.e. how long will the task will take, what is expected of them, including issues such as do they have to appoint a spokesperson to report back. Finally, make sure the group knows what resources are available.

Step 4 – Ensure the group understands the role of the group leader

Make sure that the members of the group understand your role as one of facilitating the discussion, not to tell them what to say. It is also the trainers job to show the members of the group they can work together to reach common objectives.

Step 5 – Use an appropriate range of well-timed and well-focused questions

To open a discussion, you can say “what do you think about...?”.

To spread participation, say “what do the members think about...?”, or “you have made a good point – would someone else like to comment?”, or “do you all agree with that point?”.

To promote movement, “time is passing – should we now move on to...?”.

To promote group discussion, say e.g. “am I right in sensing agreement on this point? We all seem agreed that...”.

To promote continuity, say e.g. “since we cannot quite agree on this point, do we all agree that we should take this point up at the plenary reporting back session? Or when we look at the topic of...”.

          Step 6 – When allocating tasks to smaller groups

When working with smaller groups, ensure that the participants know who will be in each pair/team. Remember to monitor the progress of each team/pair, and step in if necessary, e.g. to encourage quiet trainees, but do nothing if you are not needed.

          Step 7 – Deal with the awkward member appropriately

Sometimes there will be a group member who causes certain problems. Perhaps he/she knows it all, talks too much, does not want to participate, seeks special status, tries to trap you or has fixed views on everything. This certainly poses a challenge – however, try to respond positively to the awkward member in a supportive way. Try also to lead the individual concerned towards an awareness of the effect of the behaviour as long as this is not too painful for the individual or the group as a whole. Remember not to become too involved with the awkward member – the rest of the group are also there to learn and needs your support.

Finally, try to keep the discussion on track – summarise regularly and lead the group to positive conclusions. Never let the discussion fade away and die slowly – cut it off instead.