Survey on the Employment of Blind and Partially Sighted People in Europe (2001)

Section 1 - Introduction


Section 2 - Summary of findings


Section 3 - Employment sheets










Section 1 - Introduction

Purpose of survey

Planning for the development of services without adequate information is always difficult, it is sometimes impossible. Hence the need to gather information on the legislation that influences employment opportunities for visually impaired people in Europe.

In particular, this survey is intended to update and supplement existing data on :
- the number of visually impaired people in employment and the numbers of job seekers,
- the benefits available to visually impaired people during training or to job seekers ;
- the services available to visually impaired people or employers to provide equipment and other forms of support.
and to draw a reliable picture of the balance between mainstream and special employment opportunities in Europe.

We realise that it is not only EBU who lacks and needs this information : governments and organisations serving the interests of blind and partially sighted people in Europe are also in need of this information. These organisations do not have the information that they require to develop training and employment opportunities for visually impaired men and women.

This survey will therefore try to obtain this and other related information. To do this work, we had to rely upon the goodwill and expertise of EBU member organisations. Their collaboration has made it possible for the survey to be designed, the questionnaires distributed, the results analysed and this report prepared.




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Preparation, Distribution and Analysis

This survey updates a prior report produced in 1995 by the EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment. Its scope is substantial as it covers a wide range of issues, including statistics, legislation, benefits and similar topics.

The questionnaire devised in 1995 was slightly amended and circulated to EBU member countries in early 2001, and results were collected and collated in spring of the same year. This survey is widely based on the 1995 report, both in terms of structure and form. Where relevant, whole sections of the previous report have been kept unchanged in this paper.

Responses were received from the following EBU member organisations : Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden and UK.




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Results

The results contained in Section 2 of this document provide a diverse picture of the employment situation of visually impaired people in Europe. Although there is variation in the criteria for registration as a blind or partially sighted person in different countries, it does seem probable that many European countries are underestimating the prevalence of visual impairment in the population. This remains a key issue that needs addressing urgently, as service planning by governmental and non-governmental organisations needs to be based on reliable population estimates.

It is interesting to note the extent to which visually impaired people in EBU member countries are increasingly accessing mainstream employment opportunities.

Respondents frequently provided numerical estimates. The analysis of the information derived from such answers needs to be treated with some caution. In any case, Section 3 of this document provides employment sheets collected through sources other than the questionnaire, which provide a comprehensive picture of the employment situation of blind and visually impaired people in : Denmark, Finland, France, Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and the UK.




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Next steps


Whilst acknowledging the difficulties that have been experienced in designing the questionnaire and collating and analysing the results, we consider that the contents of this document are worthy of close study by the Board of EBU and by governmental and non-governmental organisations in EBU member countries.

The EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment should also carefully study this report and consider whether further analysis of the questionnaire responses might be worthwhile in order to elicit further information on specific subjects.

It is also important to draw the attention of other EBU Commissions, firstly to the contents of this report, and secondly to the option of carrying out further analysis on the raw data contained on the returns. Such further work might enable other Commissions to obtain information to guide or inform their future activities.




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Aknowledgments

EBU is indebted to Tony Aston and Steve Cooper who were instrumental in designing the 1995 report, and to Philippe Chazal, Chair of the EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment for the work he has undertaken to update it. The Commission particularly appreciates the efforts of all those who completed and returned the survey forms.

Finally, the Commission would like to thank Mokrane Boussaid, Director of EBU Office, and his staff, without whose administrative support this survey could not have been completed.




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Section 2 - Summary of findings

In early January 2001, the European Blind Union conducted an update survey of EBU members, the aims of which were as follows :

- Update and supplement statistics concerning the employment of blind and partially-sighted people,
- Collate information on the financial benefits available to blind and partially sighted people of working age in EBU member countries,
- Collate information on incentives to promote the employment of blind and partially sighted people of working age.

A questionnaire was sent to all EBU member organisations with a request that, when completed, these be sent to the Office of EBU which co-ordinated the exercise.

Analysis of completed questionnaires was conducted by the Office of EBU, with this final report summarising results being completed in spring 2001.




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1.  Response and performance of the questionnaire

1.1    A total of 17 EBU member organisations out of 44 returned the questionnaire (38 %). Respondents are as follows :

. Croatia
. Cyprus
. Denmark
. Finland
. France
. Germany
. Greece
. Hungary
. Ireland
. Latvia
. Luxembourg
. Netherlands
. Norway
. Poland
. Spain
. Sweden
. United Kingdom

1.2   Overall, respondents appear to have dealt with the questionnaire with reasonable effectiveness. The majority of the responses received contained answers to all questions. In this sense, the survey appears to have performed well, given that the questionnaire is almost entirely 'qualitative' - most of the questions are 'open' and require a written/narrative response as opposed to the insertion of statistics or response to coded and closed questions. This accounts for the fact that responses did vary quite considerably in their extent, content and level of detail. Some respondents provided concise, often empirical information ; others supplied substantive narratives.

1.3   Analysis of Results
Due to the nature of the questionnaire, statistical analysis producing figures is not advisable. Instead, key facts have been extracted from the survey to produce indicative trends.




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2. Key facts


2.1  Working age blind and partially sighted people

2.1.1 Respondents to the survey report a total of 433 750 blind and partially sighted people of working age.

2.1.2 Perhaps the most important conclusion to draw in this area concern information gaps. Many respondents were unable to offer precise figures concerning the actual numbers of working age blind, and partially sighted in particular, people. In this sense, the statistics gathered by the survey must not be treated as an accurate gauge of the numbers of working age blind and partially sighted people. These information gaps, which are due to either respondents' inability to access statistics or to the non-existence of these statistics, only confirmed data already available through other sources.

2.2 Unemployed working age blind and partially sighted people

2.2.1 Respondents reported a total of 100 000 unemployed blind and partially sighted people of working age.

2.2.2 It is clear for reasons summarised in 2.1 above that these figures are not definitive and moreover are illustrative of information gaps. If we limit our analysis to the Nordic countries, the information supplied is quantitatively and qualitatively satisfactory. It reveals very high unemployment rates amongst the blind and partially sighted population of an average 60 % (Denmark : 69 %, Finland : 55 %, Norway : 68 %, Poland : 87 %). Sweden stands as a remarkable exception in this gloomy picture : only 5.5 %.

The situation is no better in Germany, with 72 % unemployed. This may be due to the overall bad employment situation in the former Democratic Republic, but unfortunately we do not have break-down unemployment figures between the two former republics to confirm this.

With 4.2 % unemployment, blind and partially-sighted people in Spain seem to enjoy an enviable situation. This is mainly due to the fact that selling the famous ONCE Lottery tickets still provides an abundant source of employment.

Information on Hungary shows an unemployment rate of 77 %. This only confirms other sources of information indicating that the employment situation for the blind and partially-sighted in Central and Eastern Europe has been badly affected by the transition period towards market economy. The visually disabled used to be employed in factories run by organisations of the blind, but many of these have had to close down because they could not withstand mounting fierce competition on the open market.

2.3 General unemployment versus visually impaired people's unemployment

2.3.1 Here again, a number of respondents were unable to report a figure in response to this question.

2.3.2 However, data collected give a clear indication that blind and partially sighted people are considerably worse off than the general population.

 

% Unemployment for visually impaired

% General unemployment

Croatia

50

20

Cyprus

32

3,5

Denmark

69

5,2

Finland

55

11

Germany

72.8

8.9

Hungary

77

6

Norway

68

2.5-2.8

Poland

87

16

Spain

4.2

13.61

Sweden

5.5

3-4



2.3.3 Interpolation of results provided in this area suggests the following :
(i) Figures reported in the survey concerning the numbers of working age blind and partially sighted people and the numbers unemployed are only very broadly indicative, given problems respondents clearly encountered in accessing accurate data.

(ii) It can however be assumed that, as shown in the table in 2.3.2, blind and partially sighted people are across the board much worse off than the general population in terms of unemployment, in spite of some noteworthy exceptions (Spain, Sweden).

2.4 Major obstacles to employment

The following obstacles to the employment of blind and partially sighted people were identified :

Sight and health condition : mentioned by 9 out of 17 respondents. It is the major cause of unemployment for 3 respondents (Hungary, Spain, UK)

Disability pension : mentioned by 6 respondents. Major cause of unemployment for 1 respondent (Luxembourg)

General unemployment : mentioned by 8 respondents. Major cause of unemployment for 5 respondents (Croatia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Poland)

Low job qualification and experience : mentioned by 6 respondents. Major cause of unemployment for 2 respondents (France, Greece)

Employers' prejudiced attitude : mentioned by 4 respondents. Major cause of unemployment for 2 respondents (Cyprus, Sweden)

Poor legislation : mentioned by one respondent.

Family reasons : mentioned by 3 respondents.

Structural transformation of the economy : mentioned by one respondent.

The above information is of great value as it helps identify what should be the focus of policies to improve the employment situation of blind and partially-sighted people. However, and because of the information gap signalled above, further analysis is needed to confirm the impact of the causes of unemployment identified. It seems for example that disability pensions are an obstacle to the employment of blind and partially sighted people ; but does this mean that they should be taken away altogether ? This of course would have a tragic effect on those blind and partially-sighted who, although they are job ready, can simply not find a job.
Based on a recommendation by the EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment, the Board of EBU has recently made its views on disability pensions very clear.
a) Blindness has always been, and remains, a major disability, and any suggestion that it is not must be immediately and forcefully challenged.
b) When providing social security benefits for blind people, a distinction must be drawn between the two types of allowance set out in c and d below :
c) If a blind person is unemployed, he needs an allowance to enable him to meet ordinary living expenses, for example, food, lodging, clothing, and so on. If he becomes employed, it may be reasonable for this allowance to be reduced or suspended, depending on the nature of the employment and the wages derived from it.
d) In any case, he should be entitled to an allowance to compensate for his blindness, including the expenses which a blind person has to incur which are additional to those incurred by a sighted person. He will often have to pay for help ; he will often have to spend more on cleaning clothes ; he may to spend more on food, as he cannot easily choose cheaper items. He needs special equipment, and may have to pay for a guide to accompany him on public transport. These are just some examples of the additional cost of blindness. Because this type of allowance is compensatory, it should not be reduced or suspended if the person finds employment, or has financial resources of its own.



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3. Financial benefits for visually impaired people


3.1 In addressing this topic, the questionnaire comprised a succession of open questions. Respondents were asked for a description of :

(i) Financial benefits available to unemployed visually impaired people who have never had a job,
(ii) The extent to which benefits are available to support visually impaired people when in employment,
(iii) The extent to which such benefits are taxable,
(iv) Support and training schemes made available by employers to employees who have become disabled.

3.2 Response

The nature of response to these questions was very varied. All respondents reported diverse forms of financial benefits : in addition to generic benefits (relating to retirement, unemployment allowance, income support or some other form of pension), most respondents reported that benefits specific to disability were on offer in their countries. These ranged from invalidity based pensions to working disability benefits and specifically blind allowances.

3.3 Continuation of benefit when employed

The majority of respondents reported that benefits continue to be payable when a visually impaired person becomes employed. Where this is the case, it seems clear that benefits are in the form of disability allowances and are of a modest nature, as opposed to full-scale disability benefits intended to provide full income support where a visually impaired person is unable to work.

3.4 Benefits and Taxation

Here, a somewhat confused picture emerges from the survey. Roughly half of respondents reporting benefits continuing into employment report that these benefits are taxable. Similarly, about half report that they are not subject to tax (same as in 1995).

3.5 Employers' provisions for disabled employees

Information gathered under this item is very contrasted. Employers' provisions include mainly leave for adjustment and retraining, and re-employment in suitable post. Leave for adjustment and retraining is statutory or recommended good practice in approximately half of responding countries. Requirement to provide re-employment in suitable post is less common practice. It is noteworthy that, in Sweden, employers must adapt the workstations to the effect that they are accessible to every one ; an employee cannot be laid off before his employer makes reasonable efforts to reemploy him/her. As regards employers providing financial support after occurrence of disability, only two respondents (Nordic countries) report that, although employers do not provide direct financial support, they share the cost of rehabilitation with relevant state agencies.




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4. Incentives to promote employment for disabled people


4.1 All respondents report schemes/incentives beyond training and benefits to assist people with disabilities into employment or sheltered employment. Analysis of the substantial narratives often provided in response to these questions suggests that many schemes are generic : they are aimed either at people in long-term and/or structural unemployment, or at people with a general disability as opposed to visual impairment.

4.2 Employment legal obligation and job quotas

Eight respondents report some form of legal obligation to employ disabled/blind people or job quota schemes within their countries. In some cases, legal obligation only falls on the public sector (e.g. Croatia). Three respondents report job quota schemes for visually impaired telephonists (80 % of telephony posts are reserved to blind telephonists in Greece).
Six respondents, including 3 Nordic countries, report no such schemes.
The extent to which these provisions are implemented remains to be seen. For example, in Spain, the Law for the Social Integration of the Disabled establishes that in all companies with more than 50 workers, 2 % of the payroll should be made up of disabled workers (blind or others). However, this law establishes no measures whatsoever in the case of its non-fulfilment. As a result, and in spite of complaints from disability organisations, this law has been systematically infringed by employers.

4.3 Government assistance to employers

Most respondents report government schemes to assist employers to employ disabled people. Governments contributions towards, or total coverage of, adapted workstations emerge as the most recurrent mechanism to that effect.

4.4 Sheltered economic sector, and related benefits, incentives and advantages

4.4.1 Only 4 respondents do not report a sheltered economic sector. Some respondents have provided a detailed description of such schemes indicating a considerable range of financial benefits and incentives. Some are cash subventions from the government to sheltered schemes, others are in the form of concessions such as tax rebates, the appointment of specialist advisers on the employment of the disabled, wage subsidy from local authorities and policies relating to the marketing of goods, products and services produced by sheltered operations.




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5. Employment of blind and partially-sighted women


As expected, the level of feedback in this area is disappointingly low. Only Ireland was able to provide some information which may also apply to some other EU countries : the primary difference between blind men and women at work seems to be that male blind people tend to have more definite career advancement opportunities - some have risen to levels of chief executives and assistant bank managers, and many are employed in the computer industry. As regards blind women, the general trend tends to be in administration and in telephony, with a few exceptions that are working in the civil service.

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6.  Concluding remarks


It appears from the survey that the employment situation of the blind and partially-sighted in Europe has not evolved dramatically over the last ten years.

6.1 Statistics on disabled people in general, let alone special disability groups, are still tremendously difficult to gather. Blindness organisations do not have the financial resources, nor do they have the expertise, to perform quality investigations in this area.

6.2 There have been no major innovations in terms of incentives to employment of disabled/blind people. Traditional recipes (e.g. job quotas) are still with us, but this may be because they have yielded good results in the past. As we can see from Table 2.2.1, the blind and partially-sighted are much worse off in terms of unemployment than the general population. This infers that positive discrimination measures are needed to curb the unemployment and the marginalization of the blind.
It may sound odd to speak of positive discrimination, whereas the disability movement played an active role in the adoption of an EU Non-Discrimination Directive on Employment. In fact, non discrimination and positive discrimination are not opposed ; on the contrary they should be seen as complementary. Unfortunately, it is much too early to try and assess the impact of the directive. A few more years will be needed before a good assessment can be made.


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Section 3 - Employment Sheets

Denmark

Blind and partially sighted persons between the age of 18 and 60 years

Statistics on employment year 2000 according to survey by labour market consultant


Status

Number

% of Total

Ordinary terms of employment

249

10,24

Flexjob, special terms (reduced work capacity)

27

1,09

Social pension + ordinary terms of employment

142

5,77

Social pension + sheltered employment

134

5,44

Social pension

1.553

63,10

Education

127

5,16

Other

66

2,68

Drop-out

163

6,62

Total

2.461

100,00


John Heilbrunn
Danish Association of the Blind

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Finland

The employment situation in Finland

Statistics

This report has been made based on the statistics that are published in the Finnish Visual Impairment Register Yearbook for 1999. The interpretations and conclusions are primarily those of the person who drew up this report. The register has basic information about 24 500 persons who have become visually impaired, so it is not complete, but creates a good basis for research. Information on new persons is sent to the register by ophthalmologists and hospitals.

The Number of Visually Impaired People in Finland



In Finland there is an estimated 80 000 visually impaired people (1.55 % of the total population) of which 70 000 are elderly people and 10 000 of working age. About 1000 - 1500 are under 18 years old.

The Age of Becoming Visually Impaired



When looking at table 1 below we can see that both the largest group, 58 % in terms of age of becoming impaired over all and new cases for 1999, is the 65+ years category. When we add the 40 - 65 years group, which are unlikely to seek new vocational rehabilitation and re-employment we find that this group, i.e. people either opting for retirement or already retired stands for 65 % of new cases in 1999 and 57 % of all visually impaired people when looking at age of impairment. It is noticeable that for one quarter of new cases in 1999 it was not possible to determine the age of impairment, presumably due to a slowly progressing deterioration in vision.

Table 1 : The age of becoming visually impaired

 

All cases 31.12.1999

New cases 1999

Impaired since birth

9.6 %

3.9%

1 - 17 years

4.5%

1.1%

18 - 39 years

8.1%

2.8%

40 - 64 years

12.0%

7.1%

65 + years

44.8%

58.3%

Unknown

20.9%

26.7%


Of the people becoming visually impaired between the ages of 40 and 64 most will opt for retirement instead of vocational rehabilitation and re-employment. This can be estimated to be reflected in the employment statistics.

Employment


Table 2 below (based on information from 1995) shows the visually impaired of working age 15 - 64 years grouped according to their main activities : full-time employment, partially employed, unemployed, student, retired. The data is also divided into age groups as well as into one group with the percentage of the total population of visually impaired people of working age. Full-time employment standards are met when the person's salary or entrepreneurial income are greater than the income received from Social Security. The group partially employed is made up of those visually impaired people whose income from part-time work or self-employment is smaller than the compensation they get as pensions and other support.

We can see that 44 % are engaged in some sort of work that brings an income 18 % full-time and 26 % part-time employment. The highest percentage 54 % is in the 25-44-year group, which makes sense considering what was mentioned earlier about people losing their sight over the age of 40 choosing retirement. The same trend can be seen in the percentage of retired people increasing with age. Naturally the largest number of students 20 % is in the 15-24 years group.

Especially handicrafts and to some extent health care professions play an important role in partial employment in Finland. The training being offered in these fields is good and extensive and makes earning additional income possible in addition to pension income as well as provides for an active life. For example many craftsmen and masseurs work hard just as people in employment, although the income they receive for their work doesn't qualify them as fully employed.


Table 2 : The employment situation

Main Activities">

15 - 24 years

25 - 44

45 - 64

15 - 64 years tot

Full-time empl.

7.0 %

25.8 %

14.5 %

17.8 %

Partially empl.

39.3 %

27.8 %

20.9 %

26.0 %

Unemployed

3.9 %

2.4 %

0.8 %

1.8 %

Student

20.2 %

2.9 %

0.3 %

3.9 %

Retired

26.6 %

38.6 %

62.0 %

48.4 %

Other/unknown

3.0 %

2.4 %

1.5 %

2.1 %


Most popular professions


Of the visually impaired people who were employed full-time in 1995 the most common professions were the following :

1. Masseur, assistant physiotherapist
2. Industrial work
3. Accounting and clerical work
4. Computer design and programming
5. Teaching and social work
7. Agricultural work
8. Nursing
9. Shop staff and other mercantile work, domestic work, home assistant
11. Cleaning work, janitorial work, engineering, technician, telephone operator

When compared to the most common professions in 1985, we can see that the three top professions have remained the same but the order has changed. Industrial work is losing ground and computer design and programming (11th place in 1985) is growing in popularity and so is nursing, which is new in the top 10.



Jouni Onnela,
The Arla Institute
February 2001

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France


Professionnal integration of blind people in France

There are no figures or surveys about the number of blind people in France, let alone about their age distribution or whether or not they have a job. According to an estimate of January 2001, totally blind people may be about 60 000 (of which 15 000 have learned braille, 7 000 practising it on a regular basis).

There are 15 000 blind people of working age (including 3 000 braille-readers), barely more than 6 000 may have a real job. The primary factors that explain such a high unemployment rate within this population, include : the lack of information of employers who are generally reluctant to hire visually impaired people ; the counter-productive impact of the financial benefits granted to the visually impaired to compensate for their disability - the higher the person's income, the smaller the amount served - and of tax exemptions granted only to those who are totally income-deprived.

The 1987 Act aims to help people with disabilities gain employment, but it does not provide any specific measures for the blind : no reserved careers as is the case in Italy, or retirement-related bonuses like in many other European countries. A fund fed by contributions from companies that do not meet the required 6 % quota of disabled people's employment helps cover the cost of adaptations to work stations in the private sector. However, the funding of such adaptations in the public sector, which is also subjected to the same employment requirement, still poses problems.

Currently the main occupations open to blind people include :
    - Reception and communication
    - Administration
    - Arts
    - Sales-marketing
    - Education
    - Law
    - Medical-paramedical
    - Audio-visual press
    - Computer science/research.
A book published in 1999 called "Les Aveugles au Travail" ("The Blind at Work") mentions some 75 occupations accessible to blind people, including some rather unusual ones in the areas of agriculture, craft, politics, and social welfare.

19 sheltered work institutions accommodate some 700 sight-impaired people, including only 200 totally blind people working in the areas of craft, office supplies or agriculture. A large number of support work centres and of sheltered workshops produce their own products in highly varied areas. Support work centres employ disabled people whose production skills are low and who need medical and social support. Workers in sheltered workshops, whose productivity level is much higher, have full worker status and are more likely to join a normal work environment. While support work centres receive an overall operating budget that compensates for the low productivity of workers, sheltered workshops need to achieve a financial balance and only receive meagre operating grants. Lastly, it is noteworthy that in addition to their wages, all employees in the sheltered sector get a "compensation supplement" paid by the Government ensuring them "guaranteed resources", which, given its low amount, can usually be paid concurrently with a fraction of the general allowance paid to disabled people. Any company giving work to the sheltered sector is partially exempted from the 6 % job quota requirement.

Philippe CHAZAL
Chair, EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment

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Employment of the visually impaired in Poland

To create and sustain jobs for the Polish visually impaired is the main challenge faced by the Polish Association of the Blind (PAB). The economic and social transition of the last 10 years towards free-market economy has led to high unemployment rates amongst the general population (13,5 per cent in 2001).

According to PAB, there are some 80 000 blind and partially sighted people in Poland.
In 1999 only 5 419 out of 40 457 visually impaired people of working age had a job - i.e. an unemployment rate of 86,6 per cent.

Nearly 12 000 people were employed in cooperatives for the blind in the late 80s. The situation has detoriorated since then : in 1999 only, 1 800 jobs were lost. PAB has been fighting hard to reverse this trend. PAB representatives have been actively involved in the introduction of legislative measures to improve the employment situation of the disabled in Poland. Current legislation provides that in businesses with more than 25 employees, 6 per cent of staff must be disabled. If this quota is not met, the employer must contribute financially towards the State Rehabilitation Fund which aims to cover the costs of vocational and social rehabilitation of the disabled. As regards the creation of jobs, the Fund partly covers wages paid to disabled employees and the costs of adapting workstations.

PAB also runs sheltered workshops to provide jobs to the visually impaired. By the end of 1999 there were 72 blind and partially sighted employees in these workshops.

Persons with high professional qualifications - computer skills, law, languages - have much less problems in finding jobs on the open labour market. This also applies to some professions traditionally open to the visually impaired - e.g. masseurs : 1 064. Some members have recently started their own businesses. By the end of 1999, 411 blind and partially sighted persons were self-employed. One of them is a notary running his own office.

PAB is actively co-operating with State-run special schools for the blind. Based on experience and knowledge gained from other countries, we are now trying to establish new training activities in these schools. PAB is also involved in training teachers from mainstream schools where more and more visually impaired children are educated.

Tadeusz Majewski
Polish Association of the Blind

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Employment of the visually disabled in Russia

Over the period 1996-1999 the All-Russia Association of the Blind (VOS), working in close contact with regional and territorial employment services, helped create new jobs for 15,510 visually disabled persons, including : 7,488 in VOS organisations and factories, 1,700 in state industry, 5,426 in non-state (private, individual, etc.) industry, and 894 in agriculture.

During the recent years, an increasing number of regions (the Altai, Khabarovsk region, the Republic of Komi, the Kemerov region, Moscow, etc.) have adopted the " quota system ", i.e. 2-5 % of workstations for the visually disabled.

Rehabilitation programmes for the disabled are available in 52 regions of Russia, but only in 38 regions are their recommendations implemented by local employment services.

There are 36,684 visually disabled people in employment, including :
    - 23,577 in the VOS system
    - 11,315 in state and other factories
    - 1,792 in agriculture.
In 1999, for the first time in the last nine years, the total number of the visually disabled who have jobs has increased by 140. Those unemployed, but job ready, are 6,447.

The number of the visually disabled studying in secondary and higher special education institutions is 1,379, and is constantly growing (plus 331 since 1996).

Under the present market conditions, one of the new trends in vocational rehabilitation of the visually disabled is the creation of non-traditional workstations using computer technologies.

The successful experience of the Central Office of VOS in creating experimental workstations for the blind at the information department of Aeroflot (Russia's main airline) has helped persuade the Government of Moscow to fund similar workstations for the blind in other sectors.

The VOS Centre of Computer Technologies is responsible for the creation of automated workstations for the visually disabled working in the Organisation, using standard computer techniques, ordinary software and universal rehabilitation means.

Experience shows that computers enable a blind person to be employed virtually by any organisation, in particular those dealing with information processing.

Since 1996 41 special workstations have been installed in Moscow where 63 visually disabled persons are employed. These include a computer teacher, a programmer at a joint-stock company, a stenographer in the editorial staff of a popular newspaper, etc.

This year, the Centre of Computer Technologies has started to develop a new strand of activity : further education and employment of graduates from schools for blind and partially sighted children. Already 15 senior pupils from 3 Moscow schools have been taught to work on computers with a braille display and text magnification.

Many regions of Russia are showing interest in using the technology of the Centre with a view to setting up special automated workstations for the visually disabled. The cities of Kaliningrad, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, the Republic of Khakassia, the Vologda region, are examining the possibility of creating regional computer centres and special workstations for the blind.

However for the moment it is not possible to transfer this unique experience to the regions due to lack of finance.

Besides the Centre of Computer Technologies, there are other centres - in Volokolamsk in the Moscow region, and Biisk in the Altai region - providing rehabilitation services, including orientation and mobility, vocational training and handicraft (e.g. bee-keeping, shoe-making and repairing, carving, book-binding, wicker-work, knitting, macramé, and the playing of musical instruments).

The visually disabled trained in these centres (170-180 per year) get an opportunity to earn their living with their labour and to feel full members of society.

Besides, 60 visually disabled persons are trained as masseurs each year at the medical school of Kislovodsk.

There is also a special musical boarding school in Kursk which trains 30 visually disabled people per year, in the following professions : singing, instrument playing, choir conducting.


Larisa CHERKESOVA
Member, EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment

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Employment situation of the blind and visually impaired in Spain

A - Legal Framework

No specific legislation exists in Spain on the integration into the labour market of the blind and visually impaired. The rules of positive discrimination for this group are those that are applicable to all disabled people in general. The reference regulation in this connection is the LISMI or Law 7/1982 of 2nd April for the Social Integration of the Handicapped which, amongst other measures, provides for the obligation of all companies with more than 50 employees to include at least 2 % of handicapped workers on the payroll.

However, this Law does not establish any penalties whatsoever for non-fulfilment of the foregoing precept, which has led rise to rules for its implementation, the aim of which is to optimise its effectiveness.

1. By virtue of Royal Decree 27/2000 of 14th January, exceptional alternative measures have been established for the fulfilment of the quota of 2 per 100 of jobs reserved for the disabled in companies with 50 or more employees. This rule is the result of the Agreement signed in 1997 between the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and the Spanish Committee of Representatives of the Disabled (CERMI) which, as a common platform representing all groups of disabled persons, makes proposals to Government Authorities with a view to improving the social and labour situation of all the groups it represents. This Royal Decree establishes that all those public and private corporations having the obligation to hire disabled workers may, as an exception, be exempt from such obligation always provided that one or other of the substitute measures set forth in the rule is applied.

August of this year saw the publication, on the one hand, of Order of 24th July regulating the administrative procedure for the exceptional alternative measures and, on the other, Royal Legislative Decree 5/2000, in which "non-fulfilment of the legal obligation of reserving jobs for the disabled or of applying the alternative measures of an exceptional nature" is established as a serious violation.

2. On the other hand, economic measures exist, the aim of which is to incentivate the hiring of the disabled, of which Royal Decree 4/99 of 8th January, regulating measures for encouraging the employment of the disabled, should be highlighted. Thus, those companies that hire disabled workers for an indefinite period and on a full-time basis have the right to a subsidy of 650,000 pesetas (3,906 ?) for each contract of employment signed and, throughout their validity, rebates of between 70 % and 90 % of the company's Social Security contributions.

When an indefinite contract of employment is established for part-time work, the rebates on the contributions referred to above are maintained, although the subsidy of 650,000 pesetas is reduced in proportion to the agreed working day.

At the same time, Law 66/97 of 30th December establishes that the amount of 800,000 pesetas (4,808 ?) will be deductible for each annual increase in the average number of disabled people on the payroll who are hired for an indefinite period.

B - Employment Data

The employment situation of the blind in Spain is better than that of other disabled people, thanks to the efforts of the ONCE (National Organisation for Spanish Blind People) on behalf of achieving their integration in the labour market. The ONCE is a Public Corporation that encompasses all those Spanish blind and visually impaired people that wish to become a member.

For the integration of the blind and visually impaired in the labour market to be a reality, the possibilities for hiring them and the advantages that this entails have to be made known. The Organisation's efforts in this connection are focused on :

    - Knowledge of this group of people of working age and their conditions.

    - Approximation to companies' demands and adaptation of the supply to the demand.

    - Information to companies on the subsidies and benefits involved in hiring the blind and visually impaired.

    - Monitoring of legislation on this subject to guarantee the appropriate treatment of these contracts of employment.

The fostering of this type of employment requires the introduction of measures to directly promote it. In addition to those already in existence through the State, the ONCE implements its own measures :

    - Financial assistance for the adaptation of the post and working tools to ensure that the hiring of these people does not involve the company in extra expenses.

    - Direct assistance through credits for professionals who decide to establish themselves as self employed or through associated systems in small and medium-sized companies.

At this moment in the prevailing economic situation, a high degree of flexibility and instability has been detected in the labour market. The blind and visually impaired suffer the consequences of this situation to a much greater extent. It is for this reason that of itself the hiring of a blind or visually impaired person does not close the employment promotion cycle, but requires the close follow-up of the people who are hired.

An analysis of the real situation leads to the conclusion that professional training is not enough. In addition, insertion in the labour market requires an intensive policy of orientation, selection, qualification and preparation.

We must act as veritable intermediaries between those supplying and those demanding work in the labour market. To this end, the task of following-up the whole process is essential, preparing the presentation of the curriculum vitae and making an adequate selection of all the possibilities for placement amongst the different companies. The circulation of information on the potential of blind and visually impaired people a vital aspect of the elimination of the psychological barriers of employers that are still preventing the placement of our members.

The fact that we count on an all-encompassing social services model allows us to go one step further. Our aim, which we repeat to ourselves day after day, is to improve the process of people looking for work so that adaptation to the job is as ideal as possible.

Some overall figures relating to the creation of employment for the blind and visually impaired are given below :

    - The ONCE has 58,132 members, of which 5,105 (8.78 %) are under 18 years of age and 20,011 (34.42 %) are over 65.

    - Of these 58,132 members, 33,016 (56.79 %) are of working age, compared to the figure of 65 % for the rest of the Spanish population.

    - 56 % of the members of working age (18,118 people) are regarded as active population (working or looking for employment), which is very similar to the rest of the Spanish population (50.2 %).

    - Of the affiliated active population, 93 % (17,009 people) is employed and the remaining 6 % (1,109 people) is unemployed. The Unemployment Rate amongst the ONCE's members is significantly lower than that of the Spanish population in general.

The main factor explaining this situation is the enormous weight of the sale of tickets for the Lottery of the Blind (a passive type of lottery that has been operated by the ONCE since 1938), which is the major formula used by members for insertion in the labour market, as demonstrated by the following figures relating to working ONCE members :

    - 85 % are sellers of Lottery of the Blind tickets (14,458 people).

    - 6.6 % are employed by the ONCE as technical and administrative staff (939 people).

    - 5.5 % work for other companies and organisations (1,123 people).

In connection with the blind and visually impaired who are affiliated to the ONCE but work outside the organisation, the following professions can be highlighted : telephonists, clerks, physiotherapists, teachers, lawyers, economists and psychologists. It can be said that virtually all professions are represented.

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The labour market and the visually impaired in Sweden

For a long time, the struggle for jobs and the right of everyone to be employed has been a question of great importance in Sweden, irrespective of political creeds. It has been of even greater importance for the Swedish Association of the Visually Impaired. Less than half of our members of working age are employed ; others have been granted early retirement. This is an enormous waste of manpower. This situation has existed for a considerable time, even during periods where times have been good and unemployment low.

It is generally believed that visually impaired people cannot carry out proper work ; employers have doubts about their capacities. Investigations show, however, that employers are very satisfied with the performance of blind people at work.

SRF defines visual impairment as follows : "A person is visually impaired when his/her sight is reduced to such an extent that it leads to difficulties in reading ordinary script or orientating with the help of sight".

SRF is exploring the question of a more developed support system which would assist the visually impaired employee during the first phase of a new job in order that the work can be carried out efficiently. Without extra support to enable this, there is a risk that the person involved will be removed from his/her job and find it difficult to enter the labour market again.

The present system by which subsidies, supplementary wages and work assistants are granted is inflexible and does not allow for individual combinations which would make it possible for more people to work. The visually impaired are all too often regarded as one unit.

Generally speaking, visually impaired people are faced with two major problems on the labour market. The first is how to obtain and keep a job, and the second is how to make the job function well. These are very important questions which need to be investigated as the risk of exclusion increases dramatically if the work situation is not satisfactory. The great challenges are those of remaining on the labour market or seeking a job, and also the first application for employment as a congenitally visually impaired person.

To make a job function well depends highly on :
    - the psychosocial work environment and the social relations in the workplace
    - working aids
    - work adaptations
    - work assistance
    - support from employers


The employment situation of members of the Swedish Association of the Visually Impaired

To give an insight into the situation of the visually impaired on the labour market in Sweden, the results of the following study will serve as an example.

During Spring 2000, SRF interviewed members about their terms of employment. 105 women and 93 men took part in the interview, making up a total sample of 198.

    - Half of the members interviewed are employed, with 21 % of them working part-time.

    - 40 % of the remainder have taken early retirement ;

    - 6 % are studying ;

    - 3 % are in search of work.
The greatest disparity between genders is that more women than men work part-time.

A large number of people in the survey have an additional disability (23 %) which leads to difficulties. For these people the situation on the labour market is even more problematic. Only 18 % of this group are employed and about a third are on long-term sick leave. 80 % have been granted early retirement.

Age plays a crucial part in the employment situation, particularly for women. Women over 50 face greater difficulties. 65 % of women up to the age of 50 are employed but, after that age, the figure drops to 39 %.

Men are not faced with the same problems. In our survey, the number of employed men over the age of 50 is the same as for those under the age of 50.

In most cases, the congenitally visually impaired are employed or are studying. Half of those who have become visually impaired as adults take early retirement.

The survey shows that for those in the age bracket 50-55 (109 people), computers and the ensuing technical developments have become significant factors in their situation on the labour market. 46 % of the men and 65 % of the women in the survey are equipped with computers with advanced adaptations.

One of our surveys reveals that "traditional jobs for the blind" still exist.
    - Telephonists and sound technicians make up a relatively large group (4 % each).

    - It also shows that in the 1970's the number of visually impaired social workers increased to 7 % of the overall number of those visually impaired people with a job.

    - However, the bigger group is that of office clerks (16 %). This is by far the major source of job opportunities on the labour market.




The support system

The Employment Security Act prescribes that an employer cannot fire a person on the grounds that he/she is ill or has a disability. Employers must investigate rehabilitation possibilities when employees have been ill for more than four weeks. The primary goal is that the person remains on his current job. Ways of achieving this goal include : personal rehabilitation, task reorganisation, provision of technical aids. The employer or the National Health Services are responsible for funding of these measures.

If, for example, you become visually impaired and there is no more to do on the medical side, you are referred to a low vision centre. This is the central rehabilitation institution in Sweden. There are currently 33 low vision centres in Sweden which operate in the form of clinics where visits are arranged by appointment. The centres do not provide housing or rehabilitation courses but concentrate mainly on helping people with residual vision to acquire optical aids and training in their use.

To work and be able to perform work tasks on fairly equal conditions demands a workplace that is adapted to the needs of the visually impaired person. Specific needs depend on the degree of impairment and the nature of the work to be carried out. Advanced workplace adaptations have become more and more common.

The main subsidies for the visually impaired are :

1. Supplementary wages
To compensate for initial inconvenience, employers can receive part of the salary costs for employing a visually impaired person. The County Employment Boards decide upon the amount to be granted.

2. Work assistance
Employers are also eligible for economic support for hiring a work assistant for an employee with a disability. The maximum amount is currently 50 000 SEK per year. The County Employment Boards are also responsible for this.

Employers, or the visually impaired employees themselves, can obtain a grant in order to adapt the workplace. This covers the technical aids that are needed for managing the work. The County Employment Boards are responsible for adaptations and aids during the first year of employment. After that, responsibility is transferred to the Social Insurance Office.

In general, labour market training serves to strengthen opportunities for the unemployed to gain work. Employment offices purchase vocational training schemes from educational establishments, universities and municipalities.

In the last few years, vocational training has been predominently geared at technology, computers, production activities, service and care provision. But, a rapidly changing labour market has led to different demands for training.

The period of training and type of education varies, depending on the applicant's background. The average length of training is six months.

To qualify for labour market training, one must : be unemployed or run the risk of losing one's job ; be registered with the Employment Office.

Massage and computer training programmes are examples of areas covered by special labour market training for the visually impaired.

In Sweden, a company called Samhall offers special employment for people who have one or more occupational disability. It runs workshops all over the country, and its purpose is to generate meaningful and stimulating employment. Jobs available mainly relate to the production of goods and the provision of services. As a general policy, Samhall encourages its employees to leave after a while, and work for other employers or start their own businesses.

In Sweden, the Activity Guarantee system is made available to those who have been registered with the Employment Office for at least 24 months. It is based on a pool of existing labour market policy programmes, and provides transitional jobs of various kinds which form staging posts on the road to regular employment. Participants are admitted for up to six months at a time. Measures under the Activity Guarantee system are supervised and evaluated by the National Labour Market Board. The objective, among others, is to bring about, in partnership with employers, subsidised transitional jobs for those who, despite substantial efforts on their behalf, are still unable to find a job. This system provides visually impaired people with an opportunity to enter the labour market.



Discrimination legislation

The UN Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities were adopted in December 1993.

Six months later, the Office of the Disability Ombudsman was established in Sweden. The Ombudsman monitors the implementation of the UN Standard Rules and safeguards the rights and interests of persons with disabilities in that respect.

In order to achieve this, the Ombudsman carries out investigations on a national level and offers legal advice to individuals on disability issues. The Ombudsman also maintains regular contact with organisations of persons with disabilities.

The findings of the Ombudsman have paved the way for a new piece of legislation prohibiting discrimination against job applicants and employees with disabilities. This new law came into force in May 1999. In particular, it outlaws discrimination against people with disabilities in working life and protects employees and job-seekers against discrimination on the part of employers. The Ombudsman shall ensure that this law is voluntarily observed by employers. He has the right to represent individuals in court if their trade union organisations choose not to do so.

Vivi-Anne EMANUELSSON
Member, EBU Commission on Rehabilitation, Vocational Training and Employment

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Training, rehabilitation and employment for visually impaired people in the UK

Background statistics

- There are about 90,000 blind and partially sighted people of working age in the UK of whom approximately 25 % are in employment.

- More than half of these people are over the age of 50.

- Employment levels peak between 25 and 35 years of age and decline rapidly after the age of 45.

- Younger people tend to be better qualified and there is a high correlation between qualification level and employment.

- The general shift in the national economy from manufacturing to knowledge based activity is reflected in the employment pattern of blind and partially sighted people.

- There are now fewer than 1000 blind and partially sighted people in sheltered workshops compared to over 10,000 just 15 years ago.

- On the other hand the employment rate of young people who have gained access to university has improved.

- Statistics for the income levels of visually impaired people not available but figures for disabled people as a whole indicate that disabled women earn 17% less than non-disabled women and disabled men earn 21% less than non-disabled men. It is probably fair to assume that a similar situation exists for blind and partially sighted workers.

Training and Education

Successive legislation has improved opportunities for disabled students. A survey by RNIB showed that visually impaired students were following a widening range of courses and that traditional areas such as law and physiotherapy are now minority subjects. The most popular areas of study are now based on information technology and business administration.

Participation rates in post-school education are still too low at little over half that for non-disabled students but results for those who do participate in higher education are, on average, better than those for non-disabled students.

Recent legislation (Learning and Skills Act, 2000) requires all colleges and universities to make reasonable adjustments to meet the needs of students with disabilities and is expected to further increase opportunities for blind and partially sighted students.

Support in Employment

RNIB's Adult Needs Survey indicated that early intervention is necessary if individuals are not to lose their jobs. Despite this, intervention when an individual loses his/her sight is uncertain and often late.

Disabled individuals who require support in employment, whether in relation to recruitment or job retention, can now expect employers to make reasonable adjustments. This is a requirement of the Disability Discrimination Act, 1996.

The government provides further support through the Employment Service which operates a national network of Disability Services Teams. These teams provide advice and expertise in supporting disabled people in employment and also run the Access to Work Scheme.

Access to Work provides subsidy to employers and employees to finance workplace alterations, travel to work, special equipment and personal support. This scheme has been especially useful for visually impaired people.

The Disability Services teams refer to specialist organisations when an appropriate area of expertise is missing from their own team. This has helped to develop working relationships with specialist disability organisations.

Visual impairment is the only disability for which there are arrangements for specialist residential rehabilitation. Clients are referred by the Employment Service to RNIB centres at Manor House or, in Scotland, to Alwyn House.

Current Developments

The government has introduced a number of initiatives aimed at moving disabled people from welfare into the labour market. RNIB has argued strongly for a benefits and support system that encourages visually impaired people to achieve an optimum level of engagement in the labour market.

It appears that the government are focusing on getting as many people into employment as possible within a limited budget. The impact is likely to be that those nearest to the labour market and who need the least assistance attract resources. Those furthest from the labour market who need the most help are likely to be ignored. There is a deep concern that the limited resources for supported employment, which currently supports individuals who are least likely to be able to compete in an open labour market, will be diverted to support less disabled people.

Conclusion


There have been significant improvements in training and employment opportunities for visually impaired people over the past ten years. However, those benefits have been disproportionately to the benefit of younger well-qualified people and the situation for older poorly qualified visually impaired people has deteriorated.


Gordon Dryden
RNIB, September 2000

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